Internet milestones

In little over 10 years, the Internet has become a global phenomenon. In 1995 it was used by about 45 million people around the world. By 2006 the figure had more then doubled to 1,018,057,389. By the time you read this, the figures will have increased again. During the 1960s scientists in the USA began trying to work out how organizations could keep in touch with one another after a nuclear attack. In 1965 ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) suggested linking computers. In 1969 computers at four US universities were connected and could “talk” to each other for the first time. The network was extended and in 1973 computers were connected between London and Norway. At the same time, electronic mail (e-mail) was being used more and more to send messages between computers. In 1979the first Usenet newsgroups (online discussion groups) began.

Human and animals 1

Silk comes from the silkworm, the caterpillar of the silk moth. Silkworms eat a tonne of mulberry leaves to make 5kg (11 lb) of silk. Strong animals such as horses, donkeys, camels, reindeer and buffalo are used to pull agricultural equipment and carts, and to carry people. Elephants drag heavy logs, pit ponies once drew trucks in coal mines, and dogs – usually huskies – pull sledges. Guard dogs (and even guards geese), police dogs and sniffer dogs (to detect drugs) are widely used. Sheepdogs, hunting hounds, retrievers and guide dogs for the blind are among the best known, but other animals, such as monkeys, can be trained to aid the disabled. Search and rescue dogs help to find missing people, lost walkers and climbers, and earthquake victims. Less well – known human helpers include pigs used to find truffles and cats kept by the British Post Office to prevent mice from eating the mail! Animals kept as pets also provide millions of people with companionship.

Human and animals

Since ancient times humans have used many types of animals for a vast range of different purposes. Humans have always hunted and eaten wild animals. Milk from such animals as cows, goats, sheep, camels, buffalo, reindeer, llamas and yaks is drunk, used in cooking and made into butter and cheese. The eggs from birds such as hens, ducks, geese and quail are another important food. Honey has long been taken from the hives of wild bees, and now from domesticated bees kept in artificial hives. Wool is shorn from live sheep, which then regrow their coats. The fur and leather of many other animals can be taken only after the animal has been killed. Cattle, goats, rabbits, mink, seals, wolves, foxes, kangaroos, big cats such as leopards, and alligators and snakes are among the many animals that have been used in this way. There are some very special uses for animal skin: for example, medieval manuscripts were written on vellum, made from calfskin.

Who does what in a film?

The director controls everything, gives orders to the cat and crew and makes sure that the script is followed. There can be more than one producer, who is responsible for raising the money to make the film and for other important activities, such as casting and controlling the costs. The person who writes the script is screenplay writer. This gives the actors and actresses their lines and explains how the action takes place. The people appear in crowd scenes but do not have speaking parts. The Animatronic engineer who makes the robotic creatures used in science – fiction and fantasy films. The art director coordinates the costumes, sets and make – up to set the overall style of the film. The casting director is the person who chooses the actors for each role in the film. The caterer supplies meals so that the cast and crew can work all day. The Best boy is the deputy electrician assistant to the gaffer.

Short runs

A play is expensive to stage, so everyone involved hopes that it will run for long enough to earn back the money spent on it. Shows that run for years earn back their initial investment many times over, but some fail on their first night, or even earlier! On 18 December 1816 the one and only performance of J.R. Ronden’s the play without an A took place at the Paris Theatre des Varietes. It was written with words without the letter “a”, which made it very hard to perform and understand. The audience rioted and did not allow the play to finish. In 1888, at London’s Shaftesbury Theatre, The Lady Of Lyons failed to make its first night when the safety curtain jammed. The Intimate Revue opened and closed at the Duchess Theatre, London, on 11 March 1930. It was a disaster from start to finish. The scenery changes took so long that seven scenes were abandoned to allow the long – suffering audience to go home before midnight.

Theatre records

Thespis was the first performer ever recorded. He was an actor in Greece in 534 BC. At this time Greek actors used masks, and Thespis was the first to use stage make – up. The oldest indoor theatre in the world is the Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, Italy, which opened on 3 March 1585. London’s oldest theatre is the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, which opened on 7 May 1663. It burnt down in 1672 and was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren. In 1800 it became the world’s first theatre to have safety curtains. The oldest surviving theatre in the USA is the Walnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The National People’s Congress Building Theatre, Beijing, China was audiences of 10,000. The Perth Entertainment Centre, Australia (1976) has up to 8,500 seats, the Chaplin Havana, Cuba (1949) has 6,500 and Radio City Music Hall, New York, USA, has 6,200. The 3,483 – seater Hammersmith Odeon is the largest theatre in Britain, but the Royal Albert Hall in London can hold up to 7,000 depending on the event and how the seating is organized.

World’s energy sources 2

Flowing water has been used as a power source since the middle ages. Modern hydropower uses water flowing through turbines in dams to produce electricity. The fifth most important power source (just under 6% of the world total) is nuclear power. A nuclear reaction releases huge amounts of heat which in turn heats water or other liquid and drives a turbine to produce electricity. The first nuclear power station to produce electricity or public use was Calder Hall, UK, which opened in 1956. The Sun’s warmth can be stored to produce energy. Mirrors and glass were used to collect heat in ancient times, but the first houses to use solar heating were not built until 1955. Solar energy is becoming more popular and the technology is getting better all the time. The world’s largest solar energy generating plants are in the Mohave Desert, California, USA. They are designed to use the Sun’s rays to heat oil which drives a generator.

The first vacuum cleaner

In 1901, Englishman Hubert Cecil Booth invented the first successful vacuum cleaner. The machine worked well and was popular with rich people. It was also used in places such as Westminster Abbey, Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle. Booth’s cleaner was so large that it had to be pulled along by a horse, and six people were needed to operate it. The machines were only hired out, never sold. The upright vacuum cleaner was invented by an American named James Murray Spangler in 1907. Spangler realized that his asthma was made worse by dust, and wanted to find a more effective way of sweeping. He made the first upright vacuum cleaner with the help of a pillowcase tied to a broom handle and an electrical pump. Spangler sold the patent to his cousin William H. Hoover, who improved the invention and started a very successful business selling vacuum cleaners.

Punishments

In most countries people who break the law are either fined or imprisoned, but through the ages there have been many other forms of punishments. Whipping or flogging was once common: mutinous sailors were whipped with a cat – o – nine – tails or keelhauled. Flogging was widely used in the USA. The last state to abolish it was Delaware – but not until 1972. Even today, some countries punish people by pelting with stones, usually resulting in the victim’s death. Stocks were wooden structures which held the seated victim by the ankles. People threw things at then and ridiculed them – they were literally made a laughing stock. The pillory held victims in place by the neck and wrists. It was worse than the stocks as the people could not use their hands to protect their faces from things thrown at them, and could be blinded or even killed. The last person to be pilloried in England was Peter James Bossy in London on 22 June 1830.

Mythical creatures

Almost every creature on Earth has legends of imaginary beasts. Some are like humans with supernatural powers. Some are part human, part animal while others are unlike anything we know. Giants or ogres are enormous human – shaped creatures. They are usually seen as fearsome but stupid monsters that feed on human flesh. Famous giants include Goliath in the Bible, and Cyclops, Atlas and the Titans in Greek mythology. Leprechauns are small Irish fairies who bring good luck. They are helpful creatures, usually shown wearing green clothes, with an apron, buckled shoes and a red cap. Their fun – loving nature means that leprechauns are fond of alcohol, music and sport, but they are also mischievous and love practical jokes. Other “little people”, including elves, dwarfs, gnomes and pixels, appear in many European fairy stories. A centaur is half – horse and half – man, with the head and arms of a man and the body of a horse.